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Strategy Instruction in Revision  A Brief Review of the Research and Classroom Application by Angela Lancos

"Revision is just making sure that I have correct punctuation and spelling, right?" This question is asked by many students across the United States. Unfortunately, without specific instruction as to what revision entails, the types of corrections made most often are surface only changes (McCutchen, Francis, & Kerr, 1997). Revision is an important part of the writing process that is not always understood by writers. It is a difficult skill that involves many processes. According to McCutchen et al. (1997), revision is “the process of returning to our thoughts, evaluating and clarifying them, sometimes restructuring or even reconceptualizing them within a text” (p.667). Much of the research found regarding revision and strategy instruction was completed with students with learning disabilities. Keep in mind that this information is still useful because many of the same problems that students with learning disabilities face when writing are also faced by students with writing difficulties. This mini research paper will attempt to explain why revision is difficult and how strategy instruction helps, how strategy instruction works, and give a specific example of one model of strategy instruction, SRSD.
 * Introduction **

Revision is not an easy skill to master, but specific strategy instruction can help improve it. Prior to the 1970s, revision was mainly viewed as error correction. Research in the past few decades has revealed that revision is recursive and changes can be made at any point in the writing process (Fitzgerald, 1987). Writing requires self-regulation and control, as well as the ability to put many different skills and strategies together (Harris, Graham, Mason, & Friedlander, 2008; Fitzgerald & Markham, 1987). Struggling writers do not have or use knowledge of criteria for good writing and often can’t coordinate multiple skills when they do have them. When revising, many writers focus on surface features of a text, such as spelling and punctuation, rather than on meaning changes (McCutchen et al., 1997). Revision is a problem solving process. A writer must first find the problem, decide on a solution, and then actually solve it. Although it sounds simple, this process is anything but.

=Research Studies =

A study completed by Jill Fitzgerald and Lynda Markham (1987) found that direct instruction in the process of revision enhanced revision efforts. These researchers used 2 groups of 15 sixth graders. One groups received instruction in the process of revision and the control group read good literature. There were four 3 day cycles of 45 minute lessons. These lessons were broken down into type of revision, such as additions, deletions, substitutions, etc. The researchers found that direct instruction was found to affect children’s ability to detect mismatches between intended and written text, ability to know how to make changes, and ability to make the revisions on their paper. When comparing the revision and control groups, the revision group did not carry out more meaning changes than the control group. However, the instructional effect on the “number of suggested meaning versus surface changes was important” (p.18). This study is important in that it shows the benefit of a direct instruction problem solving approach to writing (Fitzgerald & Markham, 1987).

Gail Tompkins (2008, p. 57) defines writing strategies as “deliberate thinking procedures writers use to solve problems that they encounter while writing.” In order to solve a problem, writers need to first be able to identify the problem, and then have a repertoire of strategies to choose from. Another component of strategy instruction is that writers need to have the appropriate language in order to describe the problem before activating a possible solution. Stephanie Dix (2006) investigated young, fluent writers’ revision practices. Proficient writers could talk about their writing and give reasons for making changes, but they did not have precise terms to explain exactly what they were doing. Another important part of strategy instruction was proven through this research project. Teachers need to be explicit with their language use in order to help writers build a meta-language for writing.

When examining the research for designing instruction for revision, much of it pointed to strategy instruction. Strategy instruction can improve students’ writing. Writers need to know strategies, understand why they’re important and when and how to use them (Tompkins, 2008). There are many differences between struggling and proficient writers, but the most significant difference is “their strategy use” (Tompkins, 2008, p.56). Steve Graham and Charles MacArthur (1988) were interested in whether self-instructional strategy training would be effective in improving the revising behaviors of writers with learning disabilities. A six-step strategy for revising essays as taught to the students. The six-step strategy included SCANning each sentence (Does it make sense? Is it connected to my belief? Can I add more? Note errors). They discovered that there was a positive effect of self-instructional strategy training on revision. In addition, they found that surface level revisions declined and changes that affected meaning increased. This study was completed with three students with learning disabilities. Even though these students represent a very specific population, many struggling writers are challenged by the same issues that students with learning disabilities must handle.

Strategy Instruction Steps in a Mini-lesson
Strategy instruction varies slightly according to different models and researchers, although many of the steps remain similar. The teacher needs to directly explain the strategy, model it with think alouds, provide guided practice with feedback, and gradually work toward independent mastery. An important piece to this process is also to teach specific criteria for evaluating student’s own writing, which is sometimes specific to genre or text structure (MacArthur, 2007; Tompkins, 2008). Below are the strategy steps in a minilesson according to Gail Tompkins (p.69 ).

//Introduce the strategy//: The teacher identifies the strategy and explains its purpose. The teacher reveals examples of how and when the strategy can be used. //Demonstrate it//: The teacher explains the steps and models the use of the strategy. //Provide guided practice//: Writers practice the strategy with the teacher’s support. The teacher provides specific feedback to the writers regarding how well they are using it. A poster may be displayed for reference or students may take notes about the strategy. //Review it//: Writers reflect on the strategy and its usefulness. //Apply it//: Writers use the strategy in new and authentic writing activities. The teacher is now the coach as the writers use the strategy in both guided and independent writing activities.

Although there seem to be quite a few models, strategy instruction needs to have certain components. There should be meaningful goals and writers need to know what the goals are. Writers also need to be able to evaluate their writing in order to revise it, so they need to be taught specific criteria for evaluation and how to revise based upon those criteria (MacArthur, 2007). It works much like an internet search. A person may know what they are looking for, but unless the correct wording is typed in, he or she will not access the information they need.

SRSD
Self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) is an up and coming model in writing instruction. SRSD provides structured, explicit instruction, which is what the research shows is effective. SRSD has proven to be effective since students are taught what to look for. Students must decide exactly what the error is and then choose a solution for fixing it. SRSD directly teaches different solutions for different types of problems in writing. SRSD was initially designed to meet the needs of students with learning problems but since all students who struggle with writing share critical characteristics, SRSD can be used with any student (Harris, Graham, Mason, & Friedlander, 2008). Not only does SRSD address difficulties with the writing process, but it also attempts to improve attitudes and beliefs about writing, motivation and self-efficacy. There are 6 specific stages of instruction of a strategy that are used to develop the strategies. These steps are only a general format and can be reordered, revisited, modified, or combined as necessary and needed by the student. Struggling writers truly need all 6 stages in order to learn to use the strategy independently. The steps are: develop background knowledge, discuss it, model it, memorize it, support it, and independent performance (Harris, Graham, Mason, & Friedlander, 2008). SRSD is very structured, yet leaves decisions up to the teacher about which strategies to use at what time and with whom based upon student needs and curricular goals.

The lesson plans and strategies that are supported by Karen Harris, Steve Graham, Linda Mason, and Barbara Friedlander’s research (2008) are: - a strategy for enhancing word choice (Vocabulary Enrichment) - strategies for story writing (POW + WWW and POW + C-SPACE) - strategies for narrative, expository, and persuasive writing (POW + TREE, STOP and DARE, Report Writing, and PLANS) - strategies for revising (SCAN, Compare, Diagnose, Operate, REVISE, and Peer Revising) - a strategy for a Writing Competency Test (PLAN & WRITE) - a strategy for reading and writing informational text (TWA + PLANS)

Writers who are less proficient can have difficulties at any part of the revision process. They may lack the necessary skills and strategies or be unable to bring all of the pieces together in order to improve their writing. The research has shown that specific, explicit strategy instruction is necessary in order to teach struggling writers how to revise properly. Revision involves coordinating many processes, something that can be difficult for writers. Once they are taught to recognize a problem, they have to pull together all of the strategies that they have learned in order to choose one that will fix the problem. SRSD is a model that seeks to improve the writing of struggling students in a sequenced, explicit method based upon years of research. In order to help our struggling writers, we as teachers must learn to identify the strategies that would be beneficial to our writers and teacher them in a sequenced, explicit manner.

__**Practical Tips **__
- Set meaningful goals for and with students - Make revision meaningful – give students a purpose (for ex.- they will share their published pieces with another class) - Teach specific criteria for evaluation: genres, revision components - Directly teach a strategy that can be used to fix a specific problem: Follow the strategy steps in a mini-lesson. Skipping parts of this will negatively impact how proficient a student is in regards to the strategy taught. - Give writers the language needed in order to describe the criteria for evaluation as well as the problems that they diagnose - Provide resources along the way: charts, task cards, mnemonics, etc - SCAFFOLD: The goal is to release responsibility from the teacher to the student

__**Useful Websites **__
[|www.unl.edu/csi] This website is dedicated to strategy instruction. It is sponsored by the University of Nebraska- Lincoln. [] There are two learning modules on this site. - Interactive on-line tutorial on SRSD - Persuasive Writing with POW & TREE strategy for elementary students <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;">[|www.readwritethink.org] This website offers lessons in line with state and IRA standards. Sponsored by the IRA (International Reading Association), NCTE (National Council of English Teachers), and Verizon. [|www.discover-writing.com] Contains some useful lesson plans for teaching skills such as including metaphors and persuasive writing.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;">Click on resources
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;">Learning Strategies
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;">Modules
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;">“Using learning strategies: Instruction to Enhance Learning.”
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;">“Differentiated Instruction”
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;">Module: “Improving writing performance: a strategy for writing expository essays.”

**Resources**
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dix, S. (2006). “What did I change and why did I do it?” Young writers’ revision practices. //Literacy, 40(1)//, 3-10. Fitzgerald, J. (1987). Research on revision in writing. //Review of Educational Research, 57(4)//, 481-506. Fitzgerald, J. & Markham, L.R. (1987). Teaching children about revision in writing. //Cognition and Instruction, 4(1)//, 3-24. Graham, S. & MacArthur C. (1988). Improving learning disabled students’ skills at revising essays produced on a word processor: Self- instructional strategy training. //The Journal of Special Education, 22(2)//, 133-152. Harris, K.R., Graham, S., Mason, L.H., & Friedlander, B. (2008). //Powerful writing strategies for all students//. Baltimore, Paul H. Brookes. MacArthur, C.A. (2007). Best practices in teaching evaluation and revision. In Graham, S., MacArthur, C.A. & Fitzgerald, J. (Eds.), //Best Practices in Writing Instruction// (pp. 141-162). New York: The Guilford Press. McCutchen, D., Francis, M., & Kerr, S. (1997). Revising for meaning: Effects of knowledge and strategy. //Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(4)//, 667-676. Tompkins, G.E. (2008). //Teaching writing: Balancing process and product//. New Jersey: Pearson.